After the Japanese sunk over 22 Russian naval vessels in two attacks in the Pacific, Japan reigned as the dominant fighting force in the Pacific, threatening the United States' Pacific trade and the newly acquired Philippines. In 1907, a fleet of 16 white-painted battleships, carrying 1,010 officers and 18,978 men, embarked on an journey around the world. It was the most innovative uses of propaganda of its time, revolutionizing combat communications, building lasting relationships through collaboration, and persuading the world to respect the United States. 

The voyage was officially referred to as a "practice cruise", but the real purposes behind the venture were much more serious. The voyage stunned and impressed the world, as the National Tribune reflects: "For Europe and Asia are alike interested in the cruise, by which the naval strength of the United States on the Pacific Ocean will exceed the naval strength of Japan or any other Nation", but the effects of the voyage would long outlive the two year venture.

Throughout the venture, from conception to completion, persuasion was a prominent goal. The voyage was undoubtably a move by the United States to gain global prestige and presence. As Richard Teare writes: "In a climate of tension, [...] Roosevelt launched [...] one of the country's most effective and long-lasting propaganda operations". Tensions were rising in the Pacific, and the German and British navies were steadily growing during this time. However the United States only possessed a small fleet located in the Atlantic and poorly defended settlements and ports in the Pacific. The United States wanted European powers to recognize its naval strength and the Japanese to see its power projection capabilities, so a fleet was built and launched. The plan was not guaranteed to work, but it was sure that the world would learn of the United State's military might. 

 Even more persuasive than the initiation of the voyage were the docking locations of the fleet. The navy entertained hundreds of requests, but it made sure to dock in Japan. In a 1907 article, the National Tribune reports: "Friendly visits to Japanese ports may be encouraged [...] for the purpose of demonstrating to the Japanese [...] the character of our Navy." After sailing thousands of miles and stopping in Japan, the fleet engaged in target practice. Thousands watched as the United States Navy proved that it could cross the world combat ready. An article in Military History states: "Many regard the voyage of the Great White Fleet as a practice in politics as usual: the United States mixing military muscle with diplomacy". 

  Domestically, the success of the Great White fleet was used to persuade Congress to increase the Navy's budget. Politicians, war enthusiasts, and navy officers alike saw the Great White Fleet as an opportunity to demonstrate the benefits of a large navy to Congress. General Benjamin F. Tracy, former secretary of the navy, was quoted saying: "A navy that is largely inferior to another is of no use because a larger navy will destroy it at the first onslaught. If I were in Congress, I should vote for four battleships of 26,000 tons each [...] We need them." The Great White Fleet was designed to persuade the world as well as the government of the United States. 

Collaboration was also a goal of the fleet. The battleships stopped in parts of China in an attempt to cool tensions between China and Japan, clearly demonstrate to Japan the United State's intentions to protect its trade, and to foster the relationship between Japan and China. Japanese ships were often encouraged to make an appearance at Chinese ports, representing the geopolitical philosophy of international collaboration that was one of the fleet's purpose. 

The visit to Australia is perhaps the most obvious example of collaboration. While the United States impressed hundreds of thousands of Australian spectators with the might of its navy, the Australians benefited from the message of the United State's visit. Australia, with its newly gained independence, displayed its strategic importance to the United States and showed that it was capable of operating in the diplomatic world. This simple collaboration would lead to years of partnership between the United States and Australia. 

Arguably the most innovative aspect of the journey was its unprecedented take to military communications by the Great White Fleet. For the first time in history, wireless telephones were used on battleships to send and receive orders. Twenty eight of these telephones were installed throughout the Great White Fleet, making the "American Navy [...] the first to possess and adopt the wireless telephone", according to the Washington Times. The use of this communication device made moving supplies, organizing repairs, and directing maneuvers in rough waters much easier. The Washington Times reported: "In the fiercest gales, in storms at night, and in the densest fogs [...] ship may talk with ship or with a dozen ships at once as easily as if they were anchored along a city street". As opposed to the previous method of flag signaling, the wireless telephone was a clear winner. Flag signals only were effective when ships were in sighting distance of one another and visibility was clear, but the telephone allowed operators to talk up to eleven miles apart. The telephone offered a solution tot he long standing problem in the Navy: communication during combat and movements. 

The Great White Fleet truly was an innovative approach to propaganda and diplomacy. The voyage is often referred to by historians, such as Sebastian Lukasik, as "one of the crowning achievements of the Roosevelt presidency". President Roosevelt was able to display America's fierce military capabilities, calm political tensions in the Pacific region and prevent war with Japan, build lasting foreign relationships through collaboration, and impress potential enemies of the United States with its industrial and technological achievements. Although the mission was peaceful,  General Tracy reflected after the conclusion of the journey that "the trip is sure to attach a great reputation to our navy. There is no doubt at all that the experience and competency of our officers and men gained through the cruise will be invaluable to the service". The voyage developed the framework that guided foreign policy into the next century and successfully persuaded Congress to expand the US Navy. As General Tracy stated: "It has taught the public the necessity of a large and powerful fleet. If no other end was served [the cruise] has been invaluable to the American nation in that way". In the years to come, bases in the Philippines, Guam, and Japan would be constructed. 

1. Primary- Library of Congress: National Tribune

Annotation: I used this source to gather information on the purpose for the Great White Fleet’s venture around the world. The article is published on the Library of Congress’ database. This site is an excellent source for legitimate documents on any time period and contains useful information for my topic. I found political, practical, and ideological reasons for sending the fleet to the Pacific.

2. Primary- Library of Congress: Los Angeles herald

Annotation: This article proved to an invaluable source for quotes. I used quotations from General Benjamin F. Tracy as he described the success of the venture shortly after its conclusion in 1909. N one of his comments, General Tracy tries to persuade Congress to increase the size of the Navy. I found this article on the Library of Congress’ archive, a credible source for academic material.

3. Primary- Wireless Phones Make Battleships One Gigantic Chain

Annotation: I used this article to take notes on the communication aspect of the Great White Fleet. The article provided me with information about the wireless telephone, its adoption by the US navy, and the issues it helps overcome. This article was perfect for the objectives of this project. Written by the Washington Times in 1907 and documented on the Library of Congress, this is a legitimate source.

4. Secondary- The U.S. Navy's Great White Fleet served a foreign policy purpose in 1907.

Annotation: This article was posted on EBSCO Publishing and was written by Thomas Lohr in the Military History magazine. Thomas Lohr is a published author of several magazine and academic journal articles. I used this site to better understand the narrative and significance of the Great White Fleet’s voyage. This article helped me with the innovation requirement of the project. 

5. Secondary- A Note on Australian-American Security Relations

Annotation: This a journal article was published in the Australasian Journal of American Studies and was posted on the JSTOR database. Richard Teare, a member of the US Foreign Service for 39 years, wrote the article. Teare devoted much of his career to Southeast Asia studies and held many other important positions in politics. I used this source to find information supporting the political purpose of the Great White Fleet. It went into great detail on how he voyage served as propaganda for the United States and Theodore Roosevelt.

6. Secondary- The Eagle and the Kangaroo: The Great White Fleet's Visit to Australia.

Annotation: This article is posted on the Alabama Virtual Library and was written by Dr. David Stevens, a naval historian published in various journals and magazines. I used this source to learn about how collaboration with the United States helped US-Australia relations and how Australia used the visit to become a major world player. This article really shows that the effects of the voyage long outlived the actual event.

7. Secondary- The Great White Fleet: Reassessing America’s Rise to Power

Annotation: This essay was written by Sebastian H. Lukasik and was published on Auburn University’s research database. Lukasik is a Assistant Professor of Comparative Military History at the U.S. Air Force Air University. Lukasik received a PhD. in history from Duke University and was an assistant visiting professor in the Department of History at Duke before coming to Air University. I used this essay to further my knowledge on the effects of the Great White as it discussed it impact of US foreign policy for the next century.

8. Textbook- pg 604-606

Annotation: The textbook briefly covered the events leading up to the Great White Fleet. This information was already covered in my other sources, but this helped reinforce the facts. I used this source to gain a better understanding on the military and economic reasons behind the voyage as it discussed the Russo-Japanese war and Pacific trade.

The Great White Fleet arrives in San Diego America’s Navy

The Great White Fleet sets sail, the message of “Welcome! Come In” representing its peaceful mission and its move for improved foreign relations. Library of Congress

These images show the course of the Great White Fleet in the Pacific and Europe. The Pacific section is arguably the most important piece of the journey. Library of Congress (top) Library of Congress (bottom)

 

The firepower, weight, and speeds of all the warships are listed, publicizing the US Navy’s might. Library of Congress 

Australians gather to see the Great White Fleet pass by U.S. Naval Historical Center